To Whom It May Concern

made ya look

Penius, aka Linguistics ideas followed by papers for english and history

What is the difference between a creole, a pidgin, and a dialect? Is it possible that dialects are simply pidgins from living and dead languages? When considering North America in particular and the wealth of languages which have died out and the clear abundance of regional dialects, I think it just makes sense that pidgin languages between the two could survive after the death of one or the other languages…Our linguistics book is verbose (new word) and uses way too many different vocabulary words to describe the same thing…it’s like it’s preparing me for some mythical career as an unintelligible writer that nobody reads. Also, synthetic and analytic languages…can pidgins exist between the two? Are pidgin languages more likely to fall into one or the other categories? I predict that pidgin languages would lean more toward the isolating, or analytic, side of the spectrum…Why? Because of the simplicity and ease of transmission of quick ideas. I also predict that more pidgin languages exist in areas of high density of different language spoken (one or more languages) in trade areas, specifically harbors and ports. I would predict that a statistic could be found that may indicate a higher degree of isolating language use in said areas of trade density. It would also stand to reason, then, that distinct dialects may spring and center around former trading posts, thus indicating perhaps a pidgin nature that formerly existed between the colonizer’s language and the groups traded with in that specific area. Also, are there different degrees of syntheticism or isolationism linguistically speaking within one language, differing from one dialect to another or even based on social context or status? If so, yadayadayada…I don’t know why I’m posting this, nobody is reading it or comprehending it. But whatever, now I’ll post some old papers…don’t read further unless you want to read about gender and race crap, I would have worded it better but I have to post this quick since I had to turn it in quick and despite it’s low quality in my eyes (and maybe it’s just taboo shit I would like to have more time to make sure I worded it right) I think it may have a few original ideas so I’d best to post it…Oh, another note, certain varieties of English are approved which include what would usually be described as grammatical errors, many of them, and the dialects seem to be pretty loose with their interpretation of them…you could write in these dialects, (they’re called something else, not dialects, can’t remember) and make a case for certain grammatical ‘errors’ just being dialectical misunderstandings between you and a teacher…marking them down could be a slight against the groups of people they represent and thus be politically incorrect, perhaps earning you an A! Also, you know what? This is a little bit out there…but anyway, here’s an interpretation of a play I had to do…Oh, what I had said before in this was basically a description of the ways in which groups of people, regardless of their age, race, social status, etc. could utilize existing dynamics which demote racism in order to achieve positive social gain while affecting self promotion simultaneously. The concept of using political correctness as a mode of attack in socially normative and yet extortive manners is not unique. Indeed, it has been applied across different taboo items to achieve both legal and illegal gains in what are largely socially visible means. One cruel example would be photographing an individual’s pet in a situation which makes the owner appear to be abusive. This could be especially useful in, for instance, attaining funds for nonprofit animal shelters and donation based similar campaigns.

In “Funnyhouse of a Negro,” author Adrienne Kennedy takes special care to note the presence of a variety of colored objects, particularly those falling along the black and white color spectrum. The intention is relatively opaque, that being to indicate and provide a visual metaphor for the racial segregation and institutional oppression of African Americans in America. The reference goes a little deeper, however, and contains veiled references to colonialism, imperialism, and the social consequences of mixing different cultures to different degrees in a stratified system of power and class. For this paper, special attention will be paid to figures and forms in white satin. This could be construed as somewhat contrary to the initial, more prominent theme of the short play (the theme of blackness). However, as could be expected from a text regarding race and color on a dichotomous spectrum, the one cannot exist without the other (blackness without whiteness, whiteness without blackness). They are relational terms.
At this point I would like to point out that I do not think that a dichotomous mapping of race, that is basing it on two extremes, either provides and accurate picture of peoples’ heritages nor encourages harmony but instead creates injustices and perpetuates the institutions which restrict individuals in the world. The author, while simultaneously providing a politically charged and shocking dialogue in regards to the concept of ‘blackness,’ shaking the reader with a confrontational and confusing tone that brings to light issues for peoples of black skin tone and/or mixed race that may not generally be addressed by the naive and ignorant populace, is also painting a picture of the ‘blackness’ in ‘whiteness’ (and subsequently the ‘whiteness’ in ‘blackness’). Much of the world has so long believed they are all descended from different individual races and prehistorical integration did not occur. This is the same populace rationalization that has propagated naive and racist beliefs for centuries. The general public’s passion for the concept of a ‘thoroughbred,’ one who represents some ‘pure’ aspect of race, one descended from a bloodline that has not mixed, is ridiculous (and in fact genetically impossible). The romanticized concept of a ‘seed’ for ‘whiteness’ or ‘blackness,’ the idea that all people of one phenotype are descended from one mythical ancestor, is unrealistic at best. Additionally, we all know that humans cannot procreate without a partner, so how many ‘seeds’ have there been? It is an infinitum. There is no clear point in time that one could find in which peoples of different ancestries were not mixing (although the restrictive categories used to be more specific and this broad concept of overarching ‘whiteness’ and ‘blackness’ did not permeate, unite, and divide cultures more so that nationalist and tribalist cultures until extremely recently in historical terms). If one views a demographic map of skin tone, it is a gradual progression rather than a sharp line. This is because the world is so large and, for much of human history, travel over long distances was impossible. Technological advances and the convenience of modern travel, however, allow for this to happen on a much larger scale. People from vastly different geographic regions are now able to meet. This leads to, amongst other things, cultural differences, cultural assimilations, interracial children (the labeling of which generally promotes the false and divisive concept of race), and more. The great irony is that the color of skin, so long used as the dividing line between large groups of people, is relatively fluid and a poor indicator of sameness. There are black skinned people in Australia, are they descended from the same people as Africans? Skin color is a superficial trait and has long been falsely used to define sameness, a point of division utilized by colonial institutions of power maintenance.
This is not to say that institutions and the powerful are the only ones who engage in these tactics. Indeed, the various creation myths that exist in different tribal cultures (for the purpose of definition, the term tribal is the best to use here and groups that so often extricate themselves as higher and more sophisticated than ‘tribes’ should not be considered such for the purposes of this paper. In other words, the British people are a tribe, the Jesuits are a tribe, the Freemasons are a tribe, everything is a tribe) seem to serve the specific purpose of division and segregation from outsiders, implying some rite to existence provided by some ancestor long ago that gives his or her descendants justification for exclusion. However, the exclusion is not and has never been absolute. There have always been people coming and going from groups, peripheral folks who thrive at the border. The concept of the Roma gypsies stems largely from this ‘fringe’ motif (an entire textbook could be written on the outsiders of groups and at what point they begin to constitute another group. Also one could question whether the folks that float from one group to another could be considered their own separate tribe and whether the peripheral and in betweeners in one group share traits with the peripheral and in betweeners from other groups and so on and so forth). Power structures are at play here, and while the definition of race is one variable amongst these groups it is not the only one. It is worth looking at what causes people to move from group to group.
At this time the actual question to be acknowledged in this paper should be addressed. The significance of the white satin must be noted. It is key to realize that the author and the narrator are two (or perhaps more depending on the narrator’s mental health) different people with differing interpretations of the world. While the narrator glorifies ‘whiteness’ and demonizes ‘blackness,’ the author does not do the same. Whiteness is emphasized and glorified by the narrator but not necessarily by the author. The stage directions which begin the play describe the white satin as ‘cheap.’ This could be a metaphor. This is all speculation, but it is for this reason that certain key concepts of race have been briefly addressed. To truly address these and provide an accurate picture would take years. It is worth noting here that there are many elements which factor into individuals choosing to have so called ‘interracial’ children. The narrator is clearly the product of at least one interracial union . Her insecurities may distract the untrained eye from what is perhaps the true message of the play. The narrator emphasizes the lack of quality of her ‘black’ ancestry, but it is the belief of this paper that the author, Adrienne Kennedy, intended to emphasize the lack of quality of the narrator’s ‘white’ ancestry. This is somewhat acknowledged by Raymond and the Landlady at the end of the play, at which point they refer to the narrator’s European ancestry as a ‘white whore.’ The white satin throughout the play symbolizes ‘whiteness,’ but not the sort of pure, Victorian ‘whiteness’ that Sarah indicates. No, rather this indicates a common ‘whiteness,’ a fringe ‘whiteness.’ The politics of interracial children are complicated today and were even more so in the past. In a time in which the stigma of race carried huge social connotations, ‘white’ people who engaged in relations with ‘black’ people often did so for complex social reasons and with strange results. Referred to as ‘trash,’ these white people lived on the fringe of ‘whiteness.’ There are many things at work here. White people who associated with other races in manner outside the status quo (that being dominance and oppression) could conceivable have been outcast from their own social groups. As referenced vaguely in the play, ‘black’ people with a desire to be accepted by ‘whites’ may have seen the possible of intergenerational social mobility via the integration of bloodlines. In other words, the stigma of ‘blackness’ could have been combatted by attempting to have interracial children. With such techniques existing in the world as ‘skin bleaching’ today, it would not be a farfetched concept that a father or mother would take certain approaches to providing their children with an easier life. However, on the other side of the spectrum, what would drive the ‘white’ people to allow their children to come into the world with a distinct disadvantage (that of ‘blackness’ in a racist world)? There are many factors here, not the least of which is exclusion from the ‘white’ race. This harkens back to the ‘fringe’ discussion. What is often not discussed is that the ‘white’ race has long excluded individuals who would appear white and has done so for a variety of reasons. Jewish people and the Roma are two examples that are often cited, but they are not the only groups. The prominence of the church has led to a vast forced exodus of members of the ‘white’ race. In fact, this exodus prompted much of the emigration from Europe and subsequent colonization of other countries. It is not so much that whites were coming to America as that they were fleeing Europe. One hypothesis for the reason behind the emigration could be that they were fleeing religious persecution, but this still leaves questions. For one, what, specifically, were they being persecuted for? Why did they require different beliefs? What did they disagree with in regards to the status quo? There are many possibilities, not the least of which, in my opinion, is sexuality (but that’s a topic for another paper). Regardless, it can be concluded that those white individuals who emigrated away from Europe were the ones that were least desired (for further possibility of proof take a look at the Australian prison colonies). In the case of North America, a great many people from a breadth of locations in Europe combined. At some point, they stopped being Irish and German and left their nationalities behind, adopting a new, conceptual status of ‘whiteness.’ This ‘whiteness’ was an arbitrary institutional dividing line, the purpose of which was only to limit class mobility and maintain a system of oppression which benefitted, who else, the aristocracy. This artificial concept had deep seeded implications, however, as demonstrated in the play.
Having said all this, it is worth looking directly at the meaning of the white satin. It is possible that the white satin represents misplaced worship of sorts. The narrator is viewing whiteness through a soft focus lens and seeing it for what the institution claims it is. Satin is common, whether it is white or black. Those on the fringe between whiteness and blackness could have been many different things, but is it possible that the ‘blacks’ present in that fringe were seeking social mobility? The ‘whites’ could have been altruists, concerned with changing an unjust system, but it is also likely (considering the stigma they would inevitably face for engaging in such behavior) that they were the whites that were socially excluded for one reason or another. The implication here is that Sara’s white ancestry is ‘trash,’ that it is not the glorified kings and queens that the ‘white’ race claims to be descended from but rather the criminals and pirates we all know (some of) them to be. Raymond, the Jewish boyfriend, has a unique point of view regarding this subject. In my opinion, the play is ironic, displaying Sara’s belief that she is descended from a royal white and a black criminal when in fact she is more likely descended from an African king and white peasants (as noted by Raymond at the end of the play). The irony is that the black man did not rape the white woman but that the white man raped the black woman. The figure(s) in white satin represent the spectre of whiteness as a concept.

Next paper, also provoked, it’s the institution’s doing, I’ll tell you more about that later if you are born yet…

Miguel Street Dissection Through the Lens of Gender and Sexuality in Regards to Imperialism and the Power Structures that Accompany It.

It is interesting to examine the conceptualizations of self and identity both as an individual and a group when examining literature. Specifically with the case of Miguel Street, author V.S. Naipaul paints a unique picture of life in a small Trinidadian community. For the purpose of this paper, two chapters of this book will be utilized in order to extricate possible meanings in relation to the aesthetics, intentions, and implications on a broader scale in relation to identity within the global community. Chapters to be specifically discussed include ‘Man-man’ and, briefly, ‘How I Left Miguel Street.’ Several lenses will be utilized in order to examine potential meaning both superficial and latent, thus allowing a greater understanding of the selection of the piece within the larger global discourse that exists. These lenses include but are not limited to the framework and foundations of such formal genres of literary criticism as New Historicism, Structuralism and Realism. Paradigms in regards to colonialism and imperialism will be considered as well as possible gender implications. The possibility of the symbolic nature of this text being utilized to affect change will be discussed, and a focus on possible motive and prescription will be examined.

The relationships within Miguel Street demonstrate a semiotic nature. The characters may be viewed as unique to themselves, and indeed, the author does not go out of his way within these selected chapters to note any greater significance or symbolization of the characters, settings, and plot devices in a concrete way. It cannot be denied, however, that the characters selected and the motifs that drive them may be interpreted as representative of archetypes. Within the chapter of ‘Man-man,’ Naipaul describes the actions of one of the Miguel Street community’s more eccentric characters, known affectionately as Man-man. As a reader, one may quickly begin to question the author’s choice in name. Why call a man ‘Man-man?’ The name is repetitive and unnecessary, superficially serving only to denote the gender of this individual. Is that the defining characteristic of Man-man? Why denote gender in a name at all? While reading the chapter one sees no reference to any ambiguity of appearance of this selected character, so what purpose does the double denotation of gender serve to the people of Miguel Street? The name is actually used in conversation between characters and so it is known that the name was not selected simply to indicate gender or biological sex to the reader. What purpose does naming a character ‘Man-man’ serve? In order to truly examine this one must examine the symbolism of the word ‘man’ within the broader scope of the global culture in which the story takes place.

‘Man’ can have multiple meanings and implications. One of these includes the concept of ‘the man.’ The man is a term often used in reference to the police, one’s employer, the government, or the U.S. in general. The man often connotes ethnicity and race, often implying a divide (and not a fair one at that) of power, the man being the one in power. Could Man-man’s character be a satirical figure? He is defined as having a precise British accent. Britain, being a colonial power of the time and a notoriously imperialistic country, may represent the ruling elite class. Man-man may represent the concept of an unjust ruling class, comedically deposed and now forced to live amongst those he once oppressed. This would be ironic and a simple enough explanation for Man-man, but there could be more to unearth. Man-man could represent more than one aspect of the ruling class here. In order to further examine this and to achieve adequate understanding of the author’s possible intentions, one must acquire a knowledge of stereotypes and generalizations of the ruling class.

The ways in which aristocracy is insulted are important here. Of course there is the old truth that much of old royalty is inbred. However, this is a relatively outdated stereotype of the wealthy and powerful. So often the viewpoint of literature is focused from the point of view of the imperialist, inevitably relegating those of lesser connection with the powers that be as ‘others.’ But what if this paradigm is flipped? What if the imperialist is made to be the ‘other?’ In this case, what if the ‘other’ is a British imperialist? Stereotypes about Brits (and indeed ruling elites all over Europe) often include promiscuity and repressed sexuality. This is not without cause considering the nature of gentile culture in general and the relation that many of these imperial powers have with the church. In this manner a circle is made and other possible meanings for Man-man’s name arise. Many cultures and groups of people do not apply the same stigma to homosexuality that the dominant imperialist cultures traditionally have; could it be that Man-man is representative of this schism? If one views Man-man as representing a stereotype of British in general, other possible meanings arise.

The concept of Man-man representing British imperialistic nature is an interesting one but it is not complete. In order to truly grasp this concept, a fuller understanding of the social dos and don’ts of British people is necessary, as well as the driving forces behind emigration. What is it that drives a person to leave their own country in search of far off lands? Is it simply hunger, a craving for riches, greed? This is a simple explanation but not a satisfactory one. No, there must be something that the explorer is leaving behind, some pushing force. Historically, many people emigrated from Europe to escape religious persecution. Those persecuted included practitioners of alternative religions, but also practitioners of activities deemed unsavory and even sinful to the church. Imperialism, particularly in the case of an isolated island country like Britain, is traditionally naval. Naval and indeed military culture in general often contains veiled references to sexuality, from Odysseus encounters with sirens to song lyrics such as ‘…what should we do with a drunken sailor.’ The prevalence of sexuality as a driving force behind emigration and a valuable tool for oppressed people’s self liberation is underrated and overlooked throughout history, the divide between a naturally occurring phenomenon and beliefs prescribed frequently by the church apparently being too taboo of a subject for discussion or acknowledgement. Additionally, the ‘civilized’ nature of much of Europe is often over-attributed (specifically by those of European descent). A lack of ‘savagery’ (the definition of which often includes sexual activities not prescribed by the church; sexual positions other than the ‘missionary’ position have been called ‘sins’ by the church in its various forms) in themselves is taken for granted by many of these imperialists, often tragically so. Indeed, the systematic shaming of a person or people for sexual indiscretions is rarely mentioned despite its relative prominence throughout history. However, just because such shame exists in the colonizer does not necessarily imply a shame in the colonized, and the utilization of such repressed guilt over an exchange of fluids can shift the power dynamic in the favor of the colonized people (specifically when dealing with imperial powers such as Britain which stigmatize sexuality). With this knowledge, a different picture of Naipaul’s meaning emerges, and Man-man’s character may be a symbol for a successfully deposed colonial power, the method being indicated and all.

In the chapter ‘Man-man,’ the author takes time to inform the reader that Man-man runs for public office and gets three votes over and over again. Naipaul seems to choose his language carefully, defining Man-man’s habits as curious. In Man-man’s strange game of writing elongated words after discussing them with the narrator, he focuses on the vowels. How is this integral to our understanding of Man-man? Why has the author selected these specific numbers and letters in combination with one another? The two people who vote for Man-man aside from himself are left mysteriously unexplained, described as ‘probably’ being two jokers who are mad as well. This is cryptic and does not seem to serve any purpose in the context of the story, save to describe an interesting quirk about Man-man. But how does having two extra votes increase the reader’s understanding of Man-man’s eccentricities? It does not, and the same quirk would be more adequately and less cryptically conveyed if Man-man had simply received one vote; but he does not. In regards to Man-man’s writing extended words while focusing on the last vowel in said word, the author once again gives the reader what appears to be useless information. He does so with repetition. The author begins by relaying a story of Man-man writing an elongated version of the word ‘school’ on the sidewalk after a conversation about the subject of school with the narrator. This could be taken to simply indicate another quirky mannerism of Man-man as well as some opinion he may or may not have of school in general. But then the author goes on to describe another situation in which Man-man writes an extended version of the word ‘cricket.’ Is this simply adding fuel to the fire of the quirk? Why does the author give us this information? Again, the goal of relaying Man-man’s strangeness was accomplished with the first reference to his writing on the sidewalk, why repeat it? Is Man-man making a statement about cricket as well? This is strange to say the least.

Man-man is defined as having a connection with his canine friend and even to adopt the mannerisms and characteristics of a dog at certain points of the narrative. Does such language indicate other characteristics not explicitly noted by the narrator? Perhaps, this language and references to a ‘dog’ often has sexual connotation, signifying one who is unfaithful or pursues undesirable or obscure sexual fantasies (at least in relation to the status quo). Man-man also ‘tangles’ with (or narrowly escapes tangling with) a ‘…big Portugese man with hairy hands…’ Hairy hands could be another sexual reference, in some cultures mythically indicating a propensity for masturbation. Why does Naipaul indicate the hairiness of the man’s hands? This in no way assists our understanding of the story except to provide us with a visual image of hairy hands grasping and throwing Man-man out of a shop. It is another small piece of information which has broader societal connotations. Man-man appears to be a haunted man for much of the chapter, some overarching force driving him. The unspoken here is a latent sexuality, an insanity provoked in a man, a ‘Man-man,’ who is clearly an outsider in this community (or at least he feels as though he is).

Further examination reveals a multitude of these references, Man-man demonstrating religious piety followed by absolute madness, perhaps at his inability to successfully mimic Christ. Man-man contradicts himself, asking to be stoned and then asking not to be stoned. The conflict within him drives him literally insane.

The chapter ‘How I Left Miguel Street’ will be briefly referenced here as a logical conclusion of a possible underlying theme. The author is an Indian colonist, at once a colonizer and the colonized. In leaving Miguel Street, it could be interpreted that he is almost asking that imperial powers grant independence to those colonized. Alternatively, it could be interpreted that he is advocating the assimilation of diverse peoples into the imperial world. In both of these manners he is plausibly affecting a change in power hierarchy, a leveling of the playing field. The dominant imperial cultures have so often implied and even directly demonstrated a disrespect for the colonized and a disregard of the wisdom that exists within them. Colonizers so frequently attempt to demonstrate themselves as ‘apart’ and even ‘above’ those that they colonize, devaluing possible input occasionally at the expense of themselves. Naipaul could be at once commenting on this as well as providing a means of social mobility for those unfortunate enough to find themselves in such a circumstance. The character Man-man may represent the flawed imperialist, brought ‘down’ perhaps by his own arrogance or perhaps simply by the nature of power and belief.

Naipaul concludes the chapter ‘How I Left Miguel Street’ with a statement about looking at his own shadow. This can be interpreted many ways. Perhaps he is simply noticing his own reflection. Maybe he is commenting on his own insignificance (or significance for that matter) in the world. One interesting item to consider is the nature of the word ‘shadow’ and its alternative meanings. The ‘shadow’ is one of Carl Jung’s archetypes, representing a side of one’s self less concerned with the promotion of goodwill as with absolute survival and attainment. Perhaps the narrator is noticing himself and the power that his shadow wields, congruent with the shadowy abilities that may have been presented earlier in the book. This shadow is worth noting if simply for its alternative meanings.

To conclude, two chapters of Miguel Street have been examined and interpreted through the lens of gender within the context of New Historicism, Structuralism, and Realism. A possible alternative meaning and intent with wide reaching implications has been discussed, specifically that of colonial power shift away from imperialists via alternative methods based primarily on a game theory type approach to social interactions and sexual implications. Gender has been noted as key in deciphering what may in fact be a largely symbolic text. Particular attention to the character of Man-man has been paid with the intention of revealing a possible semiotic nature to his character (or caricature for that matter). Importance has been attributed to the closing of the piece, indicating possible alternative meanings. Character and semantic dynamics have been discussed with the intention of deciphering an underlying theme regarding imperialism. The author may or may not have intended to affect change and the nature of such writing could simply be commentary on an existing phenomenon. The possible meaning has been interpreted through the lens of a psychosocial approach focused on sexuality and while it is debatable whether or not the author intended this particular meaning to be conveyed it is undeniable that the connections are possible, and if nothing else it is a unique and interesting take on things.

And, oh yeah, here’s this little BS quip, it’s a survey prop for my linguistics class, I’m not too proud of it but I think it has one or two valid thoughts, I’m gonna work off of this, but, you know, survey’s are like assholes, everybody has…wait, it’s something like that.

Do people abbreviate words that aren’t normally abbreviated, and, if so, does this serve a specific linguistic function? Do people abbreviate differently when around different social groups? Do people abbreviate based on situational factors or surrounding phonemes? Does context, both for the individual and the word, indicate a higher or lower frequency of abbreviation? These are two questions to be partially addressed and discussed via survey. The survey will seek to define roughly the situations and circumstances that lead to abbreviation and how these abbreviations may then transcend grammatical standards to become part of the status quo in regards to acceptable language usage both globally and within social confines. Additional topics to be discussed include verbalization of written abbreviations and the functions that these serve. Abbreviations should not be inclusive of acronyms and contractions but rather a separate category altogether and the division of these three items will be discussed. To conclude, this survey will function to determine the factors behind abbreviation.

And a Civil War Paper I forgot to post:

Similarities between the Antebellum North and South

While it is undeniable that the Antebellum South and the Yankee North, comprising the pre-Civil War United States of America, exhibited stark differences in ideology, it is also equally undeniable that they shared remarkable similarities economically, societally, politically, and culturally. This paper aims to demonstrate, with clarity, the similarities exhibited by those peoples that would go on to make up both the Union and Confederate armies during a divisive point in American history (that being the Civil War). While certain politicians during the time of the Civil War and immediately preceding it claimed that the Civil War was an inevitable, irrepressible force bearing down upon the unionized ‘States,’ historians have frequently noted the frequency of so called ‘brother on brother’ combat, pitting actual relatives against one another in brutal hand to hand, cavalry, rifle, and a burgeoning artillery based warfare. Border zones often featured such divisions amongst families and, while the war may have been inevitable, the North and the South still demonstrated similarities in the realms of economics, politics, culture, and society.

The first half of the 1800s yielded substantial growth[1] in the South but particularly in the North. Economically speaking this was good news for the young United States of America, and despite political differences based on issues ranging from slavery to railroad subsidies and even federalism, the North and South enjoyed relative peace during a period of rapid expansion westward during this period in time. Early in its existence, the United States made land grabs such as the Louisiana Purchase and received large portions of the American Southwest and California as concessions during the Mexican-American War. Pioneers pushed westward and settled a territory up to and exceeding four times that of the original United States[2]. Per capita income was stratified for urban and rural Americans yet still continued an unparalleled growth[3]. All Americans did not share equally in the profits, however, and in both the North and the South a rampant policy of economic exclusion and institutional racism directed towards what would later be known as the African American people kept ‘white’ America rolling in money. Increased urbanization was particularly prominent in the Northern, non-slavery states, and a boom in technology and immigration changed the manner and mode of living for many. The South would follow suit, though through much resistance as older wealthy plantation owners were hesitant to give up an agrarian albeit slave labor based system in which they had seen much success. Regardless, populations in the South migrated towards urban areas as well, though less so in what is known as the Deep South. Despite increased rate of urbanization, however, much of the United States still lived and worked in rural areas, and it is because of this reason that the States saw higher economic gains (and population gains, not to mention decreased levels of illness and disease) than their European counterparts[4]. While economic gains in the South were based primarily upon agricultural exports as compared with the North’s predominantly textile based exports (manufactured utilizing technological advances from the Industrial Revolution and large factories), the two both benefited greatly from the abundance of resources in the western hemisphere. Additionally, advances in the category of the steamboat, road building, arms manufacturing, and railroad technologies played major roles in all states economies. Altogether, while it is undeniable that the North and South had economic differences in pre-Civil War times, it is still true that the majority of their mutual growth was achieved due to similar economic benefits and practices.

Other similarities between the North and South during the pre-Civil War era include those in the realm of politics. While the North did contain abolitionist movements it was still largely racist in practice and many Northerners continued to vote Democrat despite the newly founded Republican Party. The Whig Party and its former members held some sway, particularly in border regions which required compromise, but the grand majority of Whigs converted to the Republican Party after a disastrous 1842 election. The North and South differed in beliefs regarding slavery, education, federalism, railroad subsidies, and expansion, but these were ‘small potatoes’ when taken in conjunction with universal (white male) suffrage, democratic republicanism, and overall constitutional adherence. Despite political divides within the United States government, the majority of Americans shared relatively similar beliefs politically speaking during the era preceding the Civil War.

Despite the exaggerated differences portrayed in much of the popular media in modern times, the North and South of the United States of America shared much culturally and societally during pre-Civil War times. Both were overwhelmingly racist, and though abolitionist movements existed in the North the prevailing belief of white supremacy remained. This is demonstrated in legislation and segregation as well as the underwhelming nature of the abolitionist movement itself. Numbers of freed-men in the Northern United States were still low in relation to the number of enslaved African Americans in the South as well as whites (property owners or otherwise) on both sides of the Mason-Dixon. Whites in the North and the South were predominantly Protestant, although an influx of Catholics in the North changed these demographics in the years before, during, and after the Civil War. Literacy began to spread, more so in the North and among affluent, well to do white land owners in the South[5]. While it may be argued that the concept of capitalism exists in the economic and political realms, this is not strictly fact to the point of excluding societal and cultural realms, and wealthy, successful merchants in both the North and South, often subscribing to Whig-Republican principles, experienced rapid change in culture due to industrial growth[6]. Americans also experienced a universal increase in domesticity. Women played larger and larger roles in society with decreased risk of disease and the subsequent decrease in the amount of time and energy necessarily devoted to child rearing. With a decrease in need for labor (at least among white Americans), methods of restricting pregnancy, or ‘birth control,’ became a necessity. The most prominent of these was known as ‘coitus interuptus,’[7] and involved a rapid cessation of intercourse in order to demote pregnancy. This form of contraception was utilized by both the North and South. Altogether, the cultural and societal similarities, which included language and a majority of lifestyle and religious practices, outweighed much of the differences between the North and South in pre-Civil War America.

Overall, the Antebellum North and South shared more similarities than they exhibited differences during the time leading up to the Civil War. This is demonstrated in economic circumstances, particularly the technological advances that lead to the rapid growth of the States and the abundance of resources. The divergence of economic tendencies and practices was a major contributing factor to the secession of the Confederate States,  however this factor alone cannot be considered large enough to spark a war, especially when examining the stark differences that exist between states economically today both domestically and abroad. Culturally and societally, the North and South did exhibit differences, but the similarities they share are greater. These include language, religious practice, beliefs regarding race, and many other factors. It is for this reason that the Civil War is so frequently referred to as the ‘Brother Against Brother’ war. Politicians in the North and South differed in belief, and it is for this reason that this category, that of the political, is the one in which the North and South shared the fewest similarities. However, it is debatable whether the majority of the voting populace was informed about these issues. Additionally, the listed differences between the North and South are minimal, most of these being attributed to the regions but actually stemming from ideological differences between Democrats and Republicans. Also, when one takes into account the unheard voice of the slave population in the South, the South itself may have, on average, been more similar to the North than ever before considered. When taken into account and altogether, these economic, political, societal, and cultural factors hardly point to a schism between peoples, especially when one considers the degree of familiarity and interrelatedness shared by individuals in both the North and South. The vast amount of differences was political, yet these were not exhibited by the people but rather by the politicians and military officials themselves. It is nice to imagine a North that was friendly and accepting of African Americans, a contrast to the vision of the South so often presented, but the fact remains that African Americans did not achieve much equality until the Civil Rights Movement a century later, and still struggle with exclusion today. Differences between the North and South included population density, primary crops, climate, and social structure, but the differences were not so grand as to be insurmountable. In conclusion, the North and the South in pre-Civil War America were more similar than different and a sharp divide between individuals in rarely attributed as a causational factor for the Civil War.

---

[1] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 6.

[2] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 6.

[3] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 7.

[4] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 9.

[5] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 19.

[6] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 30.

[7] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era(New York: Harper, 1992), 35.

Alright, enjoy, I’m out of here, no I didn’t get into grad school and no, nobody will publish my stuff, but if you bite it you bought it, got it? Haha, just kidding, but for real, if there’s any dignity left in the world and plagiarism isn’t absolutely rampant thus making the entirety of the system hopeless and collapse inevitable, a favorable event at this point in my life and from this vantage point outside of the castle no doubt, then at least you know I posted this…Oh, and it’s unintelligible on purpose when it is, just because.

Random Linguistics Paper

Had to write a paper today discussing linguistics, figured I’d post it up here…idk what I was talking about, but I’ll elaborate on it later when I’m not freaking trippin ballz man.

Linguistics Introductory Paper

            The study of linguistics is a pursuit for the strong minded. Linguistics examines communication and the various modes which it exists but usually seeks to examine the verbal portion, or spoken language, specifically. The nonverbal nature of communication, however, cannot be overlooked, especially considering that the two (verbal and nonverbal communication) often occur in concert. In my own personal life, I have noticed many different modes of communication, specifically on a linguistic (or human language based) level. More than just the divisions between languages, these different modes occur within languages and with alternative forms of language. Language and the study of linguistics, in my opinion, should not be restricted to the formal study of spoken language, but, rather, in order to achieve a more dynamic and whole view of language, should be examined in conjunction with all forms of human symbolic communication. Words are often manipulated in order to achieve multiple meanings. This paper seeks to pose questions which relate to the field of linguistics and set a parameter and perimeter from which to explore the field while simultaneously making reference to my own personal experiences with linguistics. Included within this paper is my own personal knowledge of linguistics. The interpretation of communication is a fascinating field and the depth with which the field of linguistics encompasses meaning contains many questions which, upon evaluation, may indicate or lead to the discovery of worldly truths.

Communication has long been based upon seemingly arbitrary symbols. We commonly think of verbal communication, chunks or bites of individual sound pieces generated through various means orally. These sounds are representative of items, actions, and states when combined with one another, but are simultaneously meaningless when solitary (except in select cases). Known as phonetics, these sounds can be strung together in many different fashions to achieve similar goals, as is demonstrated by the diversity of different languages present in the world around us. These phonetic sounds, however, are not the only manner in which one can construct the symbolic nature of a language. Basically, meanings are given words which symbolically represent the meanings (as randomly ascribed by the one who ‘coins’ the word). These sonic symbols of meaning, words, can be broken up into many sounds which have different meanings, sometimes none at all, when standing alone. To complicate matters further, words must be given to the concepts of these sounds. In other words, somebody had to invent the word ‘word’ at some point, a herculean intellectual pursuit and achievement.

In regards to my own personal feelings about language, I do not show preference to one over the other. I am a fluent speaker of English, though through no fault of my own. I have taken French classes and find the language to be aesthetically pleasing, but this is purely subjective and is a matter of personal taste more than anything. I have experience with Spanish (or at least the local colloquial dialects of it) and enjoy it as well, though I stumble through it. I am somewhat embarrassed to use languages in which I am not fluent. I have been to France and Mexico, but again, I am a native English speaker as is all of my family (though some have spent stints in Europe and Latin America). All in all, my linguistic background is one sided and the only real diversity I have linguistically occurs in my usage of slang and other dialectical formats.

Converse to phonetics, nonverbal communication can transmit a point, idea, or concept via nonverbal means. Specifically in the instance of American Sign Language, gestures are utilized in order to manufacture similar bits of language. Similar to spoken English, the units that make up American Sign Language, the individual gestures and parts of gestures which make up larger words, can be broken down and recombined infinitely in order to manufacture new words, thus allowing the language to produce new words to represent new concepts. The divisions, however, must be tailored to the medium of nonverbal communication. Thus a language could conceivably be constructed from various indicative response items in any sense medium (think of blinking once for yes and twice for no and you have the foundation of binary code). This is interesting to examine particularly when discussing the difference between the human transmission of communication (most frequently spoken or written language) and the animal transmission of communication. The animal version seems highly inferior at first and in fact seldom seems to communicate at the level of sophistication that human language achieves. However, it’s goal is seldom left unaccomplished and it is undeniable that within the grunts, roars, wags, stomps, and whines exists deeper meaning.

Could communication be achieved through smell? Many members of the animal kingdom convey information via olfactory sensation, but could an entire language be constructed based upon smell? This is interesting to examine. We already know that touch can play a key role in communication, specifically in transposing other forms of communication, such as sign language as in the famous case of Helen Keller. Can language be similarly transposed across other sensory mediums? It would be interesting to note the neurophysiological differences between communication in verbal and nonverbal formats. Can meaning be conveyed via taste? Conversely, one could approach from a functionalist standpoint and argue that single senses are impossible to isolate from one another and that evaluating verbal communication without evaluating nonverbal communication modes is flawed at best and impossible at worst. It is worth noting that there are a multitude of ways in which communication can be achieved in any one medium. For example, Japanese and English are very similar, all things considered, yet each still requires specialized knowledge and practice in order to fluently communicate. Also, language can be translated into at least two separate visual formats, those being writing and sign language. Even within one language, communication can be difficult and syntax, grammar, meaning, and semantic meaning differ greatly across region, culture, generation, and many other factorial categories. Someone from one region of Mexico may speak an entirely different and almost unrecognizable dialect of Spanish when compared with individuals from Chile or Spain or Canada.

To conclude, there are many different factors involved in linguistic analysis. Sociolinguistically, many questions remain to be answered. Ancient languages and alternative modes of communication may exist and evaluation of linguistics in conjunction with other forms of communication could yield fascinating discoveries. More than simply why accents and dialects exist (did ‘the Fonz’ really play that large of a role on pop culture and therefore the American lexicon of language when he hit the juke box and said ‘aaaa’), linguistics examines communication at a highly specialized level amongst human beings.

worry about gun control spikes sales in assault rifles

Hahaha, I’m not going to talk about gun control, except that I’m sure that there’s a couple rednecks who know how to build their own guns so I don’t think we can ever completely get rid of them…I mean, you can’t eradicate an idea. Some of those assault weapons do seem like a little bit much for civilians, but not everyone in this country is a civilian, and liberties and all that, I don’t know. I bet that gun sales go up if discussion about gun control goes up, though, crazy world. Anyway, I just wanted to leak that line.

Two finals from today

Boom, two papers that I turned in today. I hope it works out alright, I need good grades on both to pass each class respectively. Despite my inability to focus and all my new liver medicine and pretty much the world is raining shit I still cranked both of these out today. Wish me luck, robot me wrote them, I couldn’t do otherwise. If it was a test, I rolled it up and smoked it. I’m not sure if that’s what we were supposed to do, but whatever. Boom.

 

 

 

 

Hip Hop Culture from an Ethnographical Perspective:

Examining the Underground with a Mainstream Lens

 

Tuscanooga B. Keith

University of New Mexico

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

This paper explores the subculture of hip hop, spending careful time to address it in comparison to other relatively recent global artistic movements. Subcultures offer a unique opportunity for anthropological research, complicating the science from its fundamentals by defining their members via different parameters and qualifications. Present during one of the most massive technological shifts in human history, hip hop offers cultural and anthropological opportunities never present before and defines a large and ever increasing group of people in an ever unfolding world. Positioned uniquely on either side of the border of a mass technological diffusion, the genre and its peoples offer insight into human existence like never before seen. The same principles can be transposed to smaller scenes. The study of these smaller scenes movements in relation to global trends shifts as if meteorological or tidal, shifting with currents, the social mapping of which could reveal a great deal about humanity.

Hip Hop Culture from an Ethnographical Perspective: Examining the Underground with a Mainstream Lens

Music as a Mode of Cultural Transmission

Music plays an interesting role in the transmission of ideas and thoughts. Many have postulated on the usage of musical abilities as a gauge for other competencies, yet on the other hand the ‘savant’ is a known phenomenon as well. Much research has been done on the subject of the ‘savant,’ revealing various focused, specialized, intensified, and isolated abilities in individuals who are often defined as disabled (Heaton 1998). If music is viewed within its parameters as a culture, one could conceivably map out the world in entirely new dimensions. Music, in many cases, goes so far as to influence other normally visual arts. It can also influence the attitudes of people or peoples, and even upon occasion the policy making of lawmakers.

Hip Hop and Its Unique Role in the World

It is interesting to ‘view’ one musical cultural phenomenon at a time. As the predominant genre during a global shift for the global power of its time, hip hop is interesting to ‘view.’ In a similar way, other world musics are interesting to view as basis for demographic mapping as well. Rock and roll and jazz were also global genres, but more specified and localized mapping based on musical tastes could provide interesting objectivity and insight about the cultures and peoples that are so traditionally mapped based on archaic genetic lineage and geographic positioning. The appropriation hip hop’s, cultural attitudes, ideals, practices, and beliefs amongst the global population is astounding, reflecting a mass movement (Bennet 1999). Hip hop was also poised as the vessel for the electronic and information ages and played a very interesting role in a key period of human development. Hip hop is additionally interesting to view because of the potential neurological correlates that it seems to so readily map itself onto, those of syntax, cadence, volume, etc.

Hip Hop as a Means of Cultural Definition

However, hip hop is more than just music, and both visual and kinetic aspects of the culture add to the auditory influence. Remaining widely misunderstood, the genre of music has become its own sort of institution, a movement acting independently of one individual force, expanding to the horizons (Forman 1997). Hip hop dance is said to predate the entire genre and to have been the foundational building block upon which the culture was carefully yet capitalistically built. The classic ‘deejay’ element was the first of its kind, building both an instrument out of a turntable on the one hand and a vehicle for social movement on the other (meaning the role of the ‘deejay,’ or disc jockey, was a recently developed position in society based upon technological advances which flourished during the hip hop age). So called ‘aerosol art,’ or graffiti, utilized similar advances, the new, postmodern, almost space age versions of classical arts morphed and subsequently dubbed ‘hip hop.’ But this was more than just classical art, it was a renaissance in its own right, a culture overarching several artistic, social, and economic movements. Hip hop was the future, and everything about it screamed that. Largely based in American ideals, the subculture embraces the new and the old in strangely sustainable materialistic culture (Forman 1997). Archetypes and characters are created and entire pieces could be divulged simply based upon individual caricaturized versions of hip hop’s time tested roles, hip hop borders on voodoo and Santeria with one hand while embracing spiritualism with the other. Representative of the selective spiritualism of modern developed cultures, hip hop is infamous for recycling and shaping old ideas into new ones (Forman 1997). Created alongside the technology that embraced it, hip hop paired seamlessly alongside the increasingly urban lifestyles of much of the world’s populations.

When examining a culture that spans as broad in range as one which hip hop’s parameters span, it is important to note other similar cultures. From a global paradigm, hip hop culture has helped urban youth the world over to reestablish themselves and their neighborhoods as creative and empowered individuals in a social context, shattering old stereotypes of low income families. Hip hop is rooted in grass roots and word of mouth folk movement ethos (Mitchell 2002). In order to best qualify and quantify the cultural effects of the movement, it is practical to compare hip hop with other dance, music, visual art, and poetry movements both domestically and globally, historically and presently, as a means of examining the culture on a functional level. Demographically speaking, hip hop spans a wide variety of other subcultures and modes of categorization (Forman 2002). It may be prudent to view alternative means of demographic redistribution in order to better analyze peoples from a variety of different angles.

A New Basis for Trait and Demographic Analysis

When ‘viewing’ music as a cultural phenomenon, one may find new basis for trait grouping. Local heroes are idealized and deified within the culture and values differ greatly from mainstream norms (Forman 2002). Hip hop often values the ‘grind,’ preferring snub-nose stubborn stick-to-it-iveness over inherited ability or wealth (Forman 2002). As traits may be reorganized, a fuller understanding of human interaction may emerge. What this means is that, in stark contrast to both structuralism and functionalism, hip hop has redefined itself so many times and thusly revealed a strange, ethereal, zen-like value system occurring virtually naturally. The hip hop culture’s fermentation and recycling of old ideals is indicative of entirely new yet classically familiar means for demographic purposes, perhaps allowing for perspective into certain realms of human existence not visible or comprehendible otherwise. In other words, certain cross cultural commonalities may reveal themselves amongst partakers in a subculture or counter culture. Modern culture has folded back onto itself so many times as to make it a sort of structural functionalism multiplied times itself. When a culture as focused on recording itself as hip hop starts to look at itself, it gains its own sort of ‘institutional consciousness,’ utilizing the Pythagorean theorem as well (in reference to the ability to view similar if not the same phenomena through multiple lenses and from multiple viewpoints in order to best determine what is actually happening).

Hip hop as a culture is filled with a diverse group of people spanning across many languages, continents, cultures, peoples, ages, and more. As a subculture and in some cases a counter culture, hip hop is unparalleled in its ability to unite people in pursuit of positivity. As an example of a culture influencing language, hip hop demonstrates the abilities of a culture to provide not just one but multiple forms of language and, indeed, lifestyle manipulation. Hip hop as a ‘scene’ exists in a supernatural realm, as in the idea that while it may have been more materialistic than any other culture before it the culture itself is based strictly on the nonphysical, the ideal, the ‘swagger’ of various innovators (Forman 2002). The concept of fame being a central theme in hip hop, graffiti, breakdancing, emceeing, deejaying, and all of the subsequently adopted elements share a love for the obscure, its practitioners utilizing nicknames and aliases oddly reminiscent of superheroes, avatars, and mobsters.

Hip Hop and the People’s Pursuit of Positivity

The music’s listeners and specialists share many traits, lifestyles, and artistic tastes. Could they share other traits, such as neurophysiological phenotypic similarities? Current research has shown that cadence, rhythm, pitch, and many other factors can have specific neural correlations. Melodies do, in fact, spark specific reactions on a neurophysiological level. As a culture, music is a form of transmission, perhaps to the level of being a source of sexual selection. Perhaps it could be postulated that the preference for or ability with music may be indicative of high quality neurophysiological capabilities and thus be a form of accelerated self-selection in humans. If nothing else, it does seem to be a mode of selection.

In addition to the social contexts influenced by hip hop, the music itself seems to lend itself to a sort of therapeutic use. The poetic cadences utilize older folk methodology and make reference to both the sacred and the mundane, dancing over imagery and inciting movement in its listeners. The instrumentals sample the most vivid of moments, capturing nostalgia and building tension all towards painting a new, abstract world of feelings and thoughts, beliefs and ideals for the peoples.

Syntactical Similarities and Differences with Language

As a form of syntax, music demonstrates similar neurophysiological reactions to language. Indeed, it, amongst other things, is referred to as a ‘universal language.’ Other things include love, money, and slapstick (hip hop has many famous clowns). On the other hand, individuals can develop ‘amusia,’ a musical version of aphasia, and not exhibit aphasia. The opposite is true as well, particularly and notably of the composer Shebalin. Current research, however, has not yet revealed significant differences in response. Syntactically similar in nature, these two do indeed demonstrate strange correlation.

Approaching Hip Hop from Economic and Social Points of View

The economics of the ‘game’ remain much the same today as ever. At once rumored to be almost solely based in the black market, drug and alcohol usage is rampant amongst the hip hop community. The two faces of hip hop represent a vital dualism that is ever present in art, that of aggressive pacifism. Almost Rastafarian in nature, marijuana has been adopted as a substance of leisure and economy by much of the people in this culture.

Like rock and roll, hip hop has played and continues to play a major role in the romantic lives of its people. Much has been made of various ‘star’ musicians lives, and mimicry is prominent amongst practitioners. Indeed, the archetypes of various figures have morphed with time, as with rock and roll and jazz. Much is made of ‘street credibility,’ ‘keeping it real,’ and other raw, gritty ideals. Hip hop has its own versions of other subcultures, containing various offspring with skateboarding, sport, and club lifestyles amongst others. Race, sex, crime, morality, religion, homosexuality, life, death, politics, and many other topics are addressed to varying degrees by the genre and a single and unified belief about any one subject is impossible to nail down. Instead, an almost Zionist sort of manifest destiny overtakes the movement and slowly winds the world down the road, like all things.

Possibilities and Future Directions

As far as possible future directions, electronica offers a diverse variety of opportunities in many fields, the combination of the knowledge from which may lead to more understanding of human nature. The various genres and subgenres, niches and cliques and scenes all carved out of one another, look similar to tribes and families from a superficial standpoint. Material possessions, economics, social mobility, and much more all appear to mimic older forms of social division. Much of the world could be deduced by determining which music people listen to at different times, new and more precise modes of bias could be snuffed out for good. The almost tribal nature of many of these ‘trends,’ ‘scenes,’ and ‘movements’ offers modern anthropologists opportunities to update older techniques of study to fit modern speed and dynamics.

Additional research could be done into specific genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of various subcultures’ practitioners. Precise mapping of the culture in a multi-dimensional realm could provide more specified and accurate data about specific economic functions of hip hop in capitalist societies as compared with non-capitalist societies and the exact role of the black market in an astoundingly large subculture. Specific value systems could be charted in order to determine the whether trait values differ and if so to what degree they differ from mainstream trait systems. Further research could be done to see the degree to which neurophysiological similarities and response to the actual sensory stimulation process caused by hip hop and indeed other cultural movements’ artistic mediums play a role in determining which movement an individual will demonstrate a preference towards, perhaps indicating underlying personality types impossible to comprehend from a traditional standpoint.

Conclusions

To conclude, hip hop is a group of diverse people united over seemingly artificial items. The songs and art is frequently ephemeral and the culture lives for the present. Interesting similarities may arise for people of seemingly different ‘types’ from a structural point of view, indicating a wider dimension of possible evaluative tools. This paper suggests that approaching ethnography and anthropology with different demographic dividing themes may be beneficial to a researcher’s overall understanding and conceptual solidarity. In other words, further research in the realms of alternative demography methods could yield great anthropological gains, possibly implying usefulness in a variety of academic and nonacademic realms.

Additionally, hip hop’s practitioner’s preferences may be indicative of larger human adaptive themes and motifs. For one, human self-selection has yielded many serendipitous advances, the exact functions of which have yet to be firmly defined. Music, as well as other art forms and perhaps even science, is one of these advances. Language is also one of these advances and the neural links between music and language indicate the need for further research. What exactly is it that differentiates the two? Are humans primed for language? Are humans primed for music? Is this indicative of historical phenomena? There are many questions to be asked.

Finally, the connection to the Earth which hip hop endows its practitioners is indicative of the individual integrating with the society, a reoccurring theme in an increasingly global world. Hip hop has good sides, bad sides, and in between, all of which differ from the mainstream and other subcultures. Hip hop, like other genres, has a value system unique to itself, existing partially hidden from the entire mainstream, different from the norm. Simultaneously playing to the global and local perspective, hip hop is the glorified projects of the subculture world, provided a diverse array of specialized niches for its ‘users’ to inhabit.

Works Cited

 

Heaton, Pamela and Hermelin, Beate and Pring, Linda.

1998 Autism and Pitch Processing: A Precursor for Savant Musical Ability?

Music Perception 15 (3): 291-305.

Bennet, Andy.

1999 Hip Hop Am Main: the Localization of Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture.

Media Culture Society 21 (1): 76-91.

Forman, Murray.

2010 Hip-Hop Culture, Youth Creativity, and the Generational Crossroads. In

Art and Human Development. Cynthia Lightfoot and Constance Milbrath,

eds. Pp. 59-65. New York: Psychology Press.

Mitchell, Tony and Pennycook, Alastair.

2009 Hip Hop as Dusty Foot Philosophy. In Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop

Cultures, Youth Identities, and the Politics of Language. H.Samy Alim

and Awad Ibrahim and Alastair Pennycook, eds. Pp. 25-42. New York:

Routledge.

Forman, Murray.

2002 The ‘Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop.

Connecticut: Wesleyan.

Second one now, this one was, ugh, brutal to write. Definitely not what I want to study, one of those classes that kills you to take it, knowledge you don’t really want but a ‘well rounded’ person would have…I don’t mean to make it seem like drudgery, but the class cornered me and a subject that I have a lot of ideas about really, uh, really came through in the clutch is what I meant to say. Here it is…be warned, it’s depressing subject matter, kinda like building a treehouse out of dead elephant bones.

Breastfeeding, Co-sleeping, and a Healthy Baby: A Review of Current Infant Health Practices

 

Tuscanooga B. Keith

University of New Mexico

Abstract

 

This paper aims to superimpose current health practices with archaeological findings, analyze the data, and suggest possible directions for further research. Five different articles were analyzed in order to collect data for this paper. The papers were cross examined with one another to determine possible correlations, the implications of which could extend to better understanding of optimum infant health circumstances. Areas of interest prior to examination of the articles include optimum breast feeding patterns across cultures, the effects of co-sleeping on infant health and possible correlations between breast feeding, bed sharing, and co-sleeping. Prevention of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and encouragement of healthy mental and physical development of both mother and infant are of primary concern. The relationship that these outcomes may have with possible factors breast feeding, co-sleeping, and bed sharing, is discussed.

Breastfeeding, Co-sleeping, and a Healthy Baby: A Review of Current Infant Health Practices

 

            Throughout history there have been many factors influencing human development. Specifically in the realm of nutritional health and overall absence of deficiencies, humans, like many other mammalian living organisms, have utilized milk as a form of transmitting nutrition from the maternal unit to its young (Schwarcz 1998). Environmental factors, such as co-sleeping, can be indicative of other health behaviors (McKenna 1997). Of primary concern is the prevention of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, operationally defined as an unexpected and sudden death of a child under the age of one year old for which an autopsy does not reveal an explainable cause of death (Ball 2007). This can be due to a number of factors, such as problems with the ability to wake up, inability to properly regulate carbon dioxide levels in the blood, and more. Because of the complex nature of the diagnosis, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome can be difficult to differentiate from accidental crushing or suffocation (Ball 2007). This is especially true as one takes into account the reluctance that parents involved in such accidental deaths may exhibit both internally and externally to attributing causal factors to themselves. Infants are at an increased risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome if they are around cigarette smoke while in the womb or shortly after being born, if they share a bed with one or more parents, if they sleep on their stomach (however, experts also note that infants are an increased risk of choking and strangulation if they sleep on their back), if they are a twin, if they were born prematurely, if they are impoverished, if they were born to a teen mother, if a sibling had Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, if their mother smokes or uses illegal drugs, if they received late or no prenatal care, or if there is soft bedding in the crib. Many of these, however, correlate highly with bed sharing (McKenna 1997). The effect of bed sharing should be controlled for in future research. Being a twin may correlate highly with bed sharing and thus the actual effects of being a twin may prove to be negligible, but further research is required.

When examining maternal patterns across cultures, various patterns can be ascertained from the wide, diverse variety of practices. These practices include infant rearing, education, nutrition, housing, and much more (Rowshan 1997). This paper specifically examines breastfeeding practices that have been common in the past, are common today, and other activities such as bed sharing and co-sleeping in order to determine a possible optimum infant sleep environment. Bed sharing is defined as an infant or child sleeping in the same bed, couch, or other surface upon which parents also sleep; parent and child habituating the bed for the purpose of sleep at the same time (Ball 2007). Co-sleeping is defined as the sharing of the same room but not necessarily the same bed unit by one or more parents and the infant (McKenna 1997). Again, this involves simultaneous timing, both infant and parent spending more or less what amounts to the same time and times in bed and attempting to sleep (Ball 2007). According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, co-sleeping is recommended as it encourages breast feeding. Bed sharing, however, is not recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Additionally, several other articles are reviewed in a literature review fashion in order to better explain the findings of this process. In spite of the predominance of such healthy behaviors as diurnal breastfeeding, nocturnal breastfeeding, and supposedly bed sharing, misinformation is rampant amongst many new mothers (Rowshan 1997). Specifically in the case of the Bangladesh mothers, individuals may place more responsibility on the supposed ‘quality’ of the mother’s breast milk in regards to infant health outcomes, specifically blaming the mother for sudden infant death or deaths (and perhaps the syndrome which can accompany it) (Rowshan 1997). As this paper discusses, mothers may seek out resources or options to ensure maximum breast milk intake for the infant. One such optional behavior could be seen as bed sharing (Ball 2007). Bed sharing is shown to correlate with increased nocturnal breastfeeding (Ball 2007). Co-sleeping is also shown to correlate with increased nocturnal breastfeeding (McKenna 1997), but not to the same degree as bed sharing (Ball 2007). However, bed sharing correlates with increased risk of infant death (McKenna 1997). Increased nocturnal breastfeeding without bed sharing is shown to be the best option in reducing accidental infant fatality (McKenna 1997).

Knowledge is often an indicator of ability to provide care (Rowshan 1997). The prevention of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) or other accidental infant death is often generalized as heavily influenced by the ‘quality’ of the provider’s breast milk (Rowshan 1997). Knowledge from these articles effectively minimizes and debunks colloquial and false information and beliefs about breast milk ‘quality’ (which is not measured, operationalized, or defined in said colloquial circumstances) and the prevention of infant death (Rowshan 1997). The quality of breast milk was not demonstrated in these articles to quantitatively affect infant development outcomes, though the possibility of breast milk quality having influence over these processes should not be ruled out indefinitely (Rowshan 1997). Specifically links which show the ability of bed sharing to influence nocturnal breastfeeding without emphasizing the possible deleterious effects of said bed sharing can be misleading (McKenna 1997). Neglecting to recognize that almost triple the breastfeeding occurred for bed sharing families, new mothers may falsely believe that bed sharing and not increased breast milk consumption is responsible for many nutritional benefits (Ball 2007).

Breastfeeding Patterns across cultures

 

Many experts today agree that breastfeeding is an unparalleled manner of integrating a necessary mother-infant bonding process with a specialized nutritional intake process that often leads to high levels of healthy growth for the infant involved in the equation (Schwarcz 1998). The World Health Organization recommends as a global health measure that infants be breastfed exclusively for six months beginning at birth to achieve the best outcome in regards to development of the infant. While maternal report of breastfeeding has proven to be unreliable (McKenna 1997), self-report measures have been shown to correlate with higher levels of bone density in infant skeletal remains (Herring 1998), presumably indicating better skeletal health. The implication here is that increased breast feeding provides necessary nutrients which are specialized in human breast milk to encourage healthy bone growth in infants. Fragile, frail bones are combatted with the nutritional components of breast milk, the exact formula for which cannot be replicated in a lab (Ball 2007). With variable levels of different essential nutrients at different times of the day, month, and infant’s life, breast milk provides a shifting and customized ingredient in order to best encourage infant growth and development. When discussing pediatric nutrition, note that breast-fed children have exhibited a higher resistance to disease and infection early in life, more so than a control group fed only formula. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, breast-fed children are also less likely to contract diseases later in life, including cancer, heart disease, multiple sclerosis, and juvenile diabetes. An interesting aside is that mothers who breastfeed are less likely to develop osteoporosis, experience lower risk levels in regards to breast, uterine, and ovarian cancer, and report an easier time losing weight gained during pregnancy.

Past findings indicate that breastfeeding may have been practiced for a longer duration of time than is currently commonly practiced (Schwarcz 1998). With working mothers receiving more and more pressure to return to work, many mothers in first world and developed countries do not breastfeed for the six years of infancy once considered commonplace. One such indicating study was the study done in the 19th Century St. Thomas Anglican Churchyard in Belleville, Ontario (Herring 1998). A large infant graveyard with well-preserved skeletal remains was unearthed, the findings of which indicated high levels of breastfeeding (Herring 1998). To be precise, stable nitrogen isotope analyses, colloquially and commonly referred to as ‘carbon dating,’ and historical demographic analysis was used in order to determine the weaning behaviors and the later implications of these behaviors on overall infant survival and death rates (Herring 1998). Ancient findings, such as this indicate that breastfeeding may have been much more prominent in past cultures (Schwarcz 1998). This is to be expected in some aspects if one considers the possible food shortages which may have existed in the not so distant past. When testing carbon and oxygen isotopes, more enriched enamel was discovered on molars present in older infant skeleton, indicating the beneficial effects received for Guatemalan infants when breast feeding between 700 B.C. and 1500 A.D (Schwarcz 1998). Modern practices often include the cessation of breast feeding at the reaching of the second year of life, but archaeological evidence demonstrates that, in the past, breastfeeding was common for infants between the ages of two and six years (Schwarcz 1998).

Many findings may indicate that breast milk provides infants and young children with nutritional advantages when compared with control groups, both historically and today (Herring 1998). The implications here are vast. As a specialized food source, breast milk has historically provided infants with their sole source of nutrition as well as an additional source of nutrients after solid food has already begun to be consumed (McKenna 1997). Increased breastfeeding sessions are commonly believed to provide infants with increased nutritional opportunity (Ball 2007).

Co-sleeping and Bed Sharing: The Differences, Risks, and Benefits of Each

 

            Current evidence indicates that co-sleeping and bed sharing can have mixed effects on overall outcomes of infancy, particularly in regards to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (Ball 2007). Both bed sharing and co-sleeping are shown to correlate with increased nocturnal breast feeding (Ball 2007). Bed sharing, is defined as the sharing of a single ‘bed’ unit by one or more parents and the infant (McKenna 1997). Current evidence indicates that bed sharing correlates highly with healthy development for the infant except for in extemporaneous death situations (Ball 2007). Further examination indicates that co-sleeping often results in similar levels of nocturnal breast feeding (McKenna 1997). However, frequency of breastfeeding per hour is at its absolute highest when a mother-infant dyad is present and bed sharing occurs (Ball 2007). These levels are even higher than when a crib is attached to the bed, indicating that much of the feeding may be a result of ease of access and proximity for the infant (Ball 2007). Lower levels of infant death during co-sleeping in comparison with bed sharing may be attributable to decreased risk of oxygen deprivation for the infant, accidental crushing death, and other accidental injuries which may occur when a parent rolls over on an infant unknowingly during sleep (McKenna 1997). Risk of death and injury may be perceived to be elevated for parents who experience difficulty waking from sleep or are obese.

The implications of these current studies indicate that breast feeding occurs at a higher rate when a mother sleeps in the same room as the infant (McKenna 1997). This is presumably due to the notion that increased proximity allows for easier responding to signals given off by the infant indicating a willingness to feed. However, despite risks such as crushing injury, bed sharing seems to provide infants with optimum access to the food source (Ball 2007). Co-sleeping coupled with increased attention to infant signals and routine offering of food may provide a safer environment (McKenna 1997).

While some experts claim that sleep-sharing may actually reduce the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, the subject is heavily debated (McKenna 1997). Bed sharing is thought to have been a prominent practice for many world cultures throughout much of history (McKenna 1997). Bed sharing and nocturnal breastfeeding have commonly been linked and in fact were considered almost exclusive to one another as recently as one hundred years ago according to (McKenna 1997). Overall, bed sharing and co-sleeping have both been common practices throughout history (Ball 2007). Bed sharing allows for increased opportunity for food intake for the infant, but also affords a greater risk of accidental death or Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (Ball 2007). However, with the knowledge that bed sharing infants feed three times more per night than non-bed sharing infants and marginally more than co-sleeping infants, new mothers can take steps toward achieving an optimally nutritionally healthy infant while at the same time reducing the risk of infant death (Ball 2007). Pediatric sleep medicine has provided data and knowledge which can allow for healthier development (McKenna 1997). Possible steps to achieve optimum infant health include increased offering of breast during nocturnal hours, even when the infant does not signal, while simultaneously decreasing bed sharing.

Conclusions

 

 

To conclude, breastfeeding is a prominent practice throughout much of the world and has been for much of history (Schwarcz 1998). Misinformation about the effects of breast milk is common on a global scale (Rowshan 1997). Breast milk provides a specialized, nutrient dense formula which allows for maximum infant development (McKenna 1997). Evidence for this has been provided in infant skeletal remains across cultures (Herring 1998). Co-sleeping and bed sharing have both showed increased nocturnal breast feeding for the infant involved (Ball 2007). Bed sharing, however, correlates slightly more highly with Sudden Infant Death Syndrome than does co-sleeping (Ball 2007). Conversely, bed sharing infants show roughly triple the amount of nocturnal feedings than their non-bed sharing counterparts (Ball 2007). Implications here show that more comprehensive breast milk offering systems as well as possible increased responsiveness to infant signaling in a non-bed sharing environment may provide an optimal infant sleeping and feeding environment.

Further research could be done in the realm of demographic specificity. Additional research could be conducted in infant skeletal remains worldwide in order to determine regional prominence of structures indicative of breast milk usage. Specific contents of breast milk could be analyzed in order to ascertain the specific levels of each individualized element (vitamins, minerals, and essential substances) at different times during infancy, during a monthly cycle, and during a yearly cycle. Contents of breast milk could be analyzed for stressed mothers, mothers with low levels of nutritional resources, mothers who smoke, mothers who drink, mothers who use illegal drugs, mothers who use legal drugs, mothers with conditions such as anemia, lactose intolerance, cancer, or other conditions or illnesses which could cause changes in the levels of nutritional elements present within breast milk. Analyses could be run for older mothers, mothers that experience sleep difficulties, mothers who report being depressed or other psychophysiological conditions, and for many other conditions. Single mothers could be cross-examined in conjunction with traditional mothers. Breast milk could be examined in relation to hormone levels and the effects of birth control on the levels of nutritional element in breast milk could be determined.

Annotated Bibliography

 

Herring, D.A., Katzenberg, M.A., Saunders, S.R. “Investigating the Weaning Process in Past

Populations.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105.4 (1998): 425-439. Online

Article.

This article contains information regarding an anthropological dig done in Ontario, Canada. A biometric model was applied to infant skeletal bones from the 19^th century St. Thomas’ Anglican churchyard in Belleville, Ontario. Many well preserved infant skeletal bones and high quality record keeping of the church have been evaluated in order to determine primary infant dietary sources and breast feeding practices of the time. The article aims to determine whether or not breast-feeding was a common practice and, if so, at what age was it common for mothers to wean infants.

D. A. Herring has a Ph.D. and is currently on research leave from McMaster University in Canada. Her work focuses on health in Canada, including preventative health. Her primary emphasis is on Aboriginal health. The source is reliable, especially considering the journal within which it is published. The documentation is well done and the source is scholarly, being from 1998 it is current as well.

Ball, H.L., Gettler, L.T., McKenna, J.J. “Mother-Infant Cosleeping, feeding, and Sudden Infant

Death Syndrome: What Biological Anthropology Has Discovered About Normal Infant

Sleep and Pediatric Sleep Medicine.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134.45

(2007): 133-161. Online Article.

This source discusses pediatric sleep medicine and various variables that have been posited to be linked to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, including breast-feeding and co-sleeping patterns. The article reviews literature and other previously published sources, data on non-human primates, comparative evolutionary and cross-cultural studies, insights, and perspectives in order to potentially stimulate more research in the area of pediatric sleep medicine.

The source of this article is scholarly. Dr. McKenna received his Ph.D. from the University of Oregon in 1975 and is an esteemed and world-renowned expert on infant sleep. Once again, the journal it is published in is a highly credible source.

The final determination of the article is that more research is needed. Current research indicates that many co-sleeping patterns are not beneficial to the infant and in fact hospitals are now leaning more and more towards recommending separate sleeping habitations for mother and infant. Sustained contact between mother and infant is not recommended despite the fact that sustained contact increases the probability of successful breast-feeding encounters, attachment, and general infant and maternal health. This article recommends further research be done in order to more successfully determine the optimal strategy to decrease the risks involved with co-sleeping while simultaneously reaping the benefits of -feeding (possibly decreased chances of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome). Bedding infants with other infants is also discouraged and deemed ‘dangerous.’ This article recommends further research.

Rowshan, R., Zeitlyn, S. “Privileged Knowledge and Mothers’ ‘Perceptions’: The Case of

Breast-Feeding and Insufficient Milk in Bangladesh.” Medical Anthropology Quarterly

 11.1 (1997): 56-68. Online Article

This article examines a specific case of breast-feeding in Bangladesh and the effects, positive and negative, that practitioner’s and health care provider’s beliefs and ‘perceptions’ of the efficacy of -feeding had on various health outcomes. The article determines that many popular beliefs attribute the illness of a child to the lack of health of the mother (somewhat falsely), including the implication that the breast-feeding woman whose infant becomes ill may have been affected by spiritual forces. This is a strange and complicated situation due to the combination of modern medical beliefs and traditional beliefs, perhaps leading to false persecution of mothers. While gender roles are changing, some traditionalists imply that female sexuality has a negative effect on overall infant health, attributing perhaps too much credit to breast milk in maintaining infant health when other factors are present.

Both authors of this article appear to be credible and the article is listed on major databases. Both are employed at the International Centre for Diarrhoeah Disease Research in Bangladesh. The article emphasizes the negative effects that limitation of knowledge, medically speaking, can have.

The article is credible but somewhat skewed and biased. It focuses on gender roles and socialization and attempts to evaluate a developing medical practice, one which often combines religion and science, and determine possible reasons for a decline in breast-feeding. The source is credible and focuses on the role that mothers’, doctors’, and societies’ have on encouraging or discouraging breast-feeding. The final conclusion is that there are many factors to be considered, not the least of which are the perceptions of increased maternal responsibility on a physiological level when breast milk is utilized.

McKenna, J.J., Mosko, S.S., Richard, C.A. “Bedsharing Promotes Breastfeeding.” Pediatrics:

Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics 100.2 (1997): 213-220. Online

Article

Breast-feeding is postulated to be protective against Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. This article examines practices which encourage breast-feeding, specifically bed sharing and co-sleeping. The study was conducted amongst the Latino population. The study examined practices through videography, amongst other methodologies, and concludes that infants in co-sleeping environments breastfed nearly three times longer than their non-bed sharing counterparts.

This article appears to be credible, again being written by three well established Ph.D. holders. McKenna is a renowned expert. The article concludes by suggesting bed sharing in some contexts as a preventative measure against Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.

Schwarcz, H.P., Wright, L.E. “Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotopes in Human Tooth Enamel:

Identifying Breastfeeding and Weaning in Prehistory.” American Journal of Physical

Anthropology 106.1 (1998): 1-18. Online Article

This article seeks to determine common breast-feeding and weaning practices of prehistoric mother-infant pairs via the utility of carbon and oxygen isotopes in a group of fossils discovered in Guatemala. The article concludes that breast-feeding may have been a common practice (as determined by more rich tooth nutrition and the presence of aforementioned isotopes), even up to the age of six years old. While infants appear to have begun consumption of solid foods at the age of two years old, breast milk appears to have played a major dietary role for several years after this introduction.

This source appears to be credible, being published in such a major journal. Dr. Wright is an associate professor at Texas A&M and received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. She is an esteemed scholar.

idea on global warming

Idea I wrote for a paper for class, hope nobody steals it, if they do, well, my lawyer will find ya.

Global warming is a big issue in today’s world. Specifically the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, in addition to other small particles of carbon, creates an increasingly warm climate in the world today. This can have many consequences, some of which may be adverse to human survival. These consequences may adverse to the survival of other species living on Earth as well.

To sum it up, global warming is thermal energy. As has been demonstrated in this class, increasing the number of particles in a set area increases the temperature in said area. Basically, this amounts to friction. As more particles are condensed into an area (while in a gaseous form), they continue moving. The movement is sprinkled with tiny collisions of particles. These tiny collisions are measured in terms of heat, but in reality they are simply the manifestation of thousands of tiny particles utilizing kinetic energy. In other words, what we as humans feel as heat is actually just the rapid collision of particles against us. As more particles in a gaseous form are condensed into an area, the collisions happen more frequently. When gravity is added to the equation, these particles centralize, pulling themselves towards the center. In our particular case, the center would be the Earth. As matter is diffused within a system, heat is diffused. So basically, the average temperature of the Earth and it’s atmospheric system will be roughly the same throughout time. However, if matter (in particulate form) is transferred from one region to another, the ‘heat’ will be transferred in an echoing fashion. So, as matter moves towards the center of a gravitational system, the center will increase in the number of collisions an therefore increase in heat. In a similar fashion, the outer edges of the system will decrease in ‘heat,’ ‘temperature,’ or basically thermal energy. Thermal energy is, of course, the micro-friction that occurs as particles collide. Conversely, if matter from the center of a system is distributed to the outer edges of said system, the temperature at these regions can increase. The average temperature of the system remains the same, the thermal energy is just distributed more evenly. A less dense ‘nucleus’ of a system implies a more even distribution thermal energy throughout the entirety of that system. While no system is completely independent (systems are affected by other systems), there is some semblance of internal consistency.

With this in mind, one can logically reason that global warming is real. Contrary to the common belief that releasing carbon dioxide acts as some sort of ‘greenhouse’ type of barrier, allowing heat in but not out of the Earth’s atmosphere, global warming is more accurately the redistribution of thermal energy due to increasing the amount of particulate matter present in the outer reaches of the atmosphere. Basically, when removing coal, oil, natural gas, and other fuels, one is decreasing the thermal energy in the deeper regions of the Earth (regions which are already intolerably hot to most living organisms). In redistributing this matter into the atmosphere, one increases the temperature of the air. Due to gravity, the ash will quickly settle. However, the carbon dioxide takes longer, thus distributing higher temperatures throughout the atmosphere.

It is with this in mind that I suggest a new approach (or at least a novel twist on an old idea). Plants convert carbon dioxide to oxygen, and it has been suggested numerous times that increases in various types of plants and reforestation techniques may be an adequate solution for global warming. My idea, however, is to specially ‘breed,’ or select, plants in a genetic engineering fashion in order to create a ‘super’ carbon reducer. Plants such as hemp and corn have been greatly altered over the course of human history to meet a great diversity of human needs. Algae is a common idea for this, and correct placement of various plants in between the burning and emission process present in the creation of most energy (those which involve burning and the creation of carbon dioxide) could greatly reduce the effects of global warming. However, other variables should be considered. Accidental creation of a ‘super’ carbon dioxide consumer could prove fatal and have devastating effects, so control for such breeding must be included. Resistance to heat and ‘pollution’ should be selected for. Finally, rapid consumption of carbon dioxide and growth could leave researchers with an end product which drastically reduces carbon emissions at the ground level. The abundance of a plant could leave us with a problem from an ecological standpoint, so the benefits of selecting an organism or plant which can be used to feed other organisms or plants (such as cattle, another producer of carbon emissions) could be vast. Additionally, if said plant could be burned upon dehydration for additional fuel, a relatively self sufficient system could possibly be developed.

To conclude, a blueprint for a possible solution to global warming has been presented. Global warming has been explained in detail, and further research is suggested. With careful planning and more funding, this seems like a viable solution. More research and peer review would be needed and it should be noted that this idea has been discussed publicly. However, all ideas presented in this paper were a result of personal thought by the author (Tuscanooga Keith) and have not been confirmed, negated, devalued, or edited in any way, shape, or fashion.

Illuminate eliminate